محاضرات المرحلة الثانية

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First Lecture
The Present Tense indicates that an action is present, now, relative to
the speaker or writer. Generally, it is used to describe actions that are
factual or habitual -- things that occur in the present but that are not
necessarily happening right now: "It rains a lot in Portland" is a kind of
timeless statement. Compare that to the present progressive -- "It is
raining in Portland" -- which means that something is, in fact, going on
right now. "I use my bike to get around town." is in the present, but I m
not actually on my bike right now. An instantaneous sense of the present
can be conveyed with either the simple present or the progressive:
"Watch him now: he holds [is holding] down the control key at the same
time that he presses [is pressing] the letter d."
The present tense is used to describe events that are scheduled (by nature
or by people): "High tide is at 3:15 p.m. The Super Bowl starts at 6:15
p.m."
The present tense can be used to suggest the past with what is sometimes
called the fictional (or historic) present: "We were watching the back
door when, all of a sudden, in walks Dierdre." With verbs of
communicating, the present tense can also suggest a past action: "Dierdre
tells me that she took her brother to the dentist." Most oddly, the present
tense can convey a sense of the future, especially with verbs such as
arrive, come, and leave that suggest a kind of plan or schedule: "The train
from Boston arrives this afternoon at two o clock."
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The Present Tense uses the verb s base form (write, work), or, for third-person singular subjects, the base form plus an -s ending (he writes, she works). Singular Plural I walk we walk you walk you walk he/she/it walks they walk
Singular Plural I sleep we sleep you sleep you sleep he/she/it sleeps they sleep
Singular Plural I am we are you are you are he/she/it is they are
Present tense habitual activities are frequently signaled by time expressions such as the following: all the time always every class every day every holiday every hour every month every semester every week every year most of the time never often rarely sometimes usually
-I walk to work every day. -The Chicago Bulls sometimes practice in this gymnasium. -Dr. Espinoza operates according to her own schedule.
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-Coach Calhoun recruits from countries outside the U.S.A. -Tashonda tells me she has committed to UConn. -We work really hard to make this a success, and then look what happens. -Every time that kid finishes a sandcastle, the waves come in and wash it away. --The shipment arrives tomorrow at 2 p.m.
The Present Progressive Tense indicates continuing action, something going on now. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the present tense, plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I am buying all my family s Christmas gifts early this year. She is working through the holiday break. Dierdre is being a really good girl in these days before Christmas".
The present progressive can suggest that an action is going to happen in the future, especially with verbs that convey the idea of a plan or of movement from one place or condition to another: "The team is arriving in two hours. He s moving to Portland this summer." Because the present progressive can suggest either the present or the future, it is usually modified by adverbs of time.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and not with stative verbs.
The progressive forms of a verb indicate that something is happening or was happening or will be happening. When used with the past, the progressive form shows the limited duration of an event: "While I was doing my homework, my brother came into my room." The past progressive also suggests that an action in the past was not entirely finished. (Compare "I did my homework." to "I was doing my homework.") This is even more evident in the passive progressive
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construction: "He was being strangled in the alley" suggests an action that was not finished, perhaps because the act was interrupted by a good citizen, whereas the simple past "He was strangled in the alley" suggests an action that was finished, unfortunately.
A neat categorization of the uses of the progressive can be found on the page describing the "To Be" Verb.
The progressive forms occur only with dynamic verbs, that is, with verbs that show qualities capable of change as opposed to stative verbs, which show qualities not capable of change.* For instance, we do not say, "He is being tall" or "He is resembling his mother" or "I am wanting spaghetti for dinner" or "It is belonging to me." (We would say, instead: "He is tall," "He resembles his mother," "I want spaghetti," and "It belongs to me.") The best way to understand the difference between stative and dynamic verbs is to look at a table that lists them and breaks them into categories and then to build some sentences with them, trying out the progressive forms to see if they work or not.
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Second Lecture DYNAMIC VERBS Activity Verbs I am begging you. I was learning French. They will be playing upstairs.. Virtually identical in meaning to simple tense forms: I beg you. I learned French. They will play upstairs.
abandon ask beg call drink
eat help learn listen look at
play rain read say slice
throw whisper work write Process Verbs The corn is growing rapidly. Traffic is slowing down. Virtually identical in meaning to simple present tense forms: The corn grows rapidly. Traffic slows down.
change deteriorate
grow mature
slow down
widen Verbs of Bodily Sensation "I feel bad" and "I am feeling bad" are virtually identical in meaning.
Ache
feel
hurt
itch Transitional Events Verbs Progressive forms indicate the beginning of an event, as opposed to the simple present tense. "She was falling out of bed [when I caught her]" as opposed to "She falls out of bed every night."
arrive die
fall land
leave
lose Momentary Verbs Progressive forms indicate little duration and suggest repetition. She is hitting her brother.
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He is jumping around the house.
hit jump
kick knock
nod
tap
STATIVE VERBS Verbs of Inert Perception and Cognition* I detest rudabaga, but not I am detesting rudabaga. I prefer cinnamon toast, but not I am preferring cinnamon toast
abhor adore astonish believe desire detest dislike doubt feel forgive
guess hate hear imagine impress intend know like love mean
mind perceive please prefer presuppose realize recall recognize regard remember
satisfy see smell suppose taste think understand want wish Relational Verbs I am sick, but not I am being sick. I own ten acres of land, but not I am owning ten acres. My brother owes me ten dollars" but not My brother is owing me ten dollars.
be* belong to concern consist of contain cost
depend on deserve equal fit have include
involve lack matter need owe own
possess require require resemble seem sound
*Kolln suggests that we think of the difference between stative and dynamic in terms of "willed" and "nonwilled" qualities. Consider the difference between a so-called dynamic adjective (or subject complement) and a stative adjective (or subject complement): "I am silly"
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OR "I am being silly" versus "I am tall." I have chosen to be silly; I have no choice about being tall. Thus "tall" is said to be a stative (or an "inert") quality, and we cannot say "I am being tall"; "silly," on the other hand, is dynamic so we can use progressive verb forms in conjunction with that quality.
The same applies to verbs. Two plus two equals four. Equals is inert, stative, and cannot take the progressive; there is no choice, no volition in the matter. (We would not say, "Two plus two is equalling four.") In the same way, nouns and pronouns can be said to exhibit willed and unwilled characteristics. Thus, "She is being a good worker" (because she chooses to be so), but we would say "She is (not is being) an Olympic athlete" (because once she becomes an athlete she no longer "wills it").
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Third Lecture
The Forms of “To Be”
The Greek sea god, Proteus, was (like the sea) capable of changing form in an instant. In order to get any decent information out of him, you had to grab him and hold on tight while he went through his various forms — lion, wild boar, snake, tree, running stream — it wasn t easy. The verb ?To be? is said to be the most protean of the English language, constantly changing form, sometimes without much of a discernible pattern. Considering that we use it so often, it is really too bad that the verb ?To be? has to be the most irregular, slippery verb in the language.
Present Tense I am We are You are You are He/She/It is They are
Past Tense I was We were You were You were He/She/It was They were
Perfect Form (past participle) Progressive Form (present participle)
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I have been, etc.
I am being, etc.
We must choose carefully among these various forms when selecting the proper verb to go with our subject. Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs. That s usually an easy matter. We wouldn t write ?The troops was moving to the border.? But some sentences require closer attention. Do we write ?The majority of students is (or are) voting against the referendum"? Review carefully the material in our section on Subject-Verb Agreement, and notice how often the choices we make require a familiarity with these forms of the ?To be? verb.
Simple Questions
We create simple yes/no questions by inverting the order of subject and the ?To be? verb.
? Is your brother taller than you?
? Am I bothering you?
? Were they embarrassed by the comedian?
The same inversion takes place when ?To be? is combined with verbs in the progressive:
? Am I working with you today?
? Is it snowing in the mountains?
? Were your children driving home this weekend?
The Linking and Existential To Be
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The verb ?To be? most frequently works in conjunction with another verb: ?He is playing the piano,? ?She will be arriving this afternoon.? Occasionally, though, the verb will stand by itself, alone, in a sentence. This is especially true in simple, brief answers to questions.
?Who s going to the movies with me?? ?I am? ?Who s responsible for this mess in the bathroom?? ?She is.?
In sentences such as these, the subject usually receives the intonation stress and the voice falls off on the verb.
An auxiliary can be combined with the base form of ?To be? to provide simple answers to questions that use forms of ?to be.?
?Is Heitor in class this morning?? ?Well, he might be.? ?Is anyone helping Heitor with his homework?? ?I m not sure. Suzanne could be.?
The verb ?To be? also acts as a linking verb, joining the sentence subject with a subject complement or adjective complement. A linking verb provides no action to a sentence: the subject complement re-identifies the subject; the adjective complement modifies it. (For further information and additional vocabulary in dealing with linking verbs, visit the hyperlinks in this paragraph.)
? Professor Moriber is the Director of Online Learning.
? Our trip to Yellowstone was fantastic!
In Passive Constructions
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A form of the verb ?To be? is combined with a past participle to form the passive. Passive verb constructions are useful when the subject of an action is not as important as what the subject did (the action of the sentence) or when the subject is unknown. For instance, the police might report that ?The professor was assaulted in the hallways? because they do not know the perpetrator of this heinous crime. In technical writing, where the process is more important than who is doing the activity, we might report that ?Three liters of fluid is filtered through porous glass beads.? Regardless of the verb s purpose, only the auxiliary form of ?To be? changes; the participle stays the same. The ?To be? will change form to indicate whether the subject is singular or plural:
? The foundation is supported by enormous floating caissons that keep it from sinking into the swamp.
? They were constructed by workers half submerged in the murky waters.
Notice how the information about who did the action is frequently found in a prepositional phrase beginning with ?by.? Passive constructions do not always include this information:
? Wooden caissons were used until fiberglass structures were developed in the 1950s.
? Caissons were also designed to function under water in the construction of bridges.
The ?To be? will also change to indicate the time of the action and the aspect of the verb (simple, progressive, perfect).
? Water is pumped out of the caisson to create an underwater work chamber. (simple present)
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? Some caissons were moved to other construction sites. (simple past)
? While the water was being pumped out, workers would enter the top of the waterproof chamber. (past progressive)
? Many other uses of caisson construction have been explored. (present perfect)
? Caissons had been used by the ancient Romans. (past perfect)
? Other uses will be found. (future)
The ?To be? verb can be combined with other modal forms (along with the past participle of the main verb) to convey other kinds of information. See the section on modals for the various kinds of information conveyed by modals (advisability, predictability, guessing, necessity, possibility, etc.).
? The wall joints may be weakened if the caissons can t be rebuilt.
? Perhaps the caissons should be replaced; I think they ought to be.
? These ancient, sturdy structures might have been rotted by constant exposure to water.
Visit our section on the passive for advice on when to use the passive and when to substitute more active verb forms.
When ?To be? verbs are combined with modal forms in this manner, the construction is called a phrasal modal. Here are some more examples:
? Rosario was able to finish her degree by taking online courses.
? She wasn t supposed to graduate until next year.
? She will be allowed to participate in commencement, though.
? She is about to apply to several graduate programs.
? She is going to attend the state university next fall.
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Sometimes it is difficult to say whether a ?To be? verb is linking a subject to a participle or if the verb and participle are part of a passive construction. In ?Certain behaviors are allowed,? is "are? linking ?behaviors? to "allowed" (a participle acting as a predicate adjective) or is ?are allowed? a passive verb? In the final analysis, it probably doesn t matter, but the distinction leads to some interesting variations. Consider the difference between
? The jurists were welcomed. and
? The jurists were welcome.
In the first sentence, the participle ?welcomed? (in this passive construction) emphasizes the action of welcoming: the smiles, the hearty greetings, the slaps on the back. In the second sentence, the predicate adjective ?welcome? describes the feeling that the jurists must have had upon being so welcomed.
Progressive Forms
Progressive forms include a form of ?To be? plus a present participle (an -ing ending). Frodesen and Eyring** categorize progressive verbs according to the following functions:
? to describe actions already in progress at the moment "in focus" within the sentence, as in ?I was doing my homework when my brother broke into my room, crying.? or ?I will be graduating from college about the same time that you enter high school.?
? to describe actions at the moment of focus in contrast to habitual actions, as in ?We usually buy the most inexpensive car we can find, but this time we re buying a luxury sedan.?
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? to express repeated actions, as in ?My grandfather is forever retelling the same story about his adventures in Rangoon.?
? to describe temporary situations in contrast to permanent states, as in ?Jeffrey goes to the University of Connecticut, but this summer he is taking courses at the community college.?
? to express uncompleted actions, as in ?Harvey and Mark are working on their deck.?
Fourth Lecture
Tag Questions with “To Be”
It is a device by which a statement is turned into a question. When we use ?To be? verbs in a tag question, the basic formula follows: the verb is combined with a pronoun and sometimes with not (usually in a contracted form). Positive statements are followed by negative tags; negative statements by positive tags.
? Robert Frost was America s favorite poet, wasn t he?
? He wasn t widely accepted in this country at first, was he?
? You were going to skip this poem, weren t you?
? There were several typographical errors in this anthology, weren t there? (Be careful here. It s not ?weren t they.?)
? I am not a very good reader, am I?
? I m a better reader than you, aren t I?
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(Don t try to make sense of this last construction. It is acceptable. In very formal text, you might write ?am I not? instead. ?Ain t? is not regarded as acceptable except in text attempting to duplicate substandard speech.)
Order with Adverbs
Notice that adverbs of frequency normally appear after forms of the verb ?To be?:
? As a student, he was seldom happy.
? Arturo is always first in line.
? They were never on time.
Notice that the adverb still appears after ?To be? verbs but before other main verbs:
? My brother-in-law still works for the bank.
? He is still a teller after twenty years.
An adverb can be interposed between the infinitive ?To be? and a participle, as in the following sentences. The fear of splitting an infinitive is without grounds in this construction.
? This medicine has to be carefully administered.
? She turned out to be secretly married to her childhood sweetheart.
Unnecessary Uses of “To Be”
Even a casual review of your writing can reveal uses of the verb ?To be? that are unnecessary and that can be removed to good effect. In a way, the ?To be? verb doesn t do much for you — it just sits there — and text that is too heavily sprinkled with ?To be? verbs can feel sodden, static. This is especially true of ?To be? verbs tucked into dependent clauses (particularly dependent clauses using a passive construction) and
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expletive constructions (?There is,? ?There were,? ?it is,? etc.). Note that the relative pronoun frequently disappears as well when we revise these sentences.
? He wanted a medication that was prescribed by a physician.
? She recognized the officer who was chasing the crook.
? Anyone who is willing to work hard will succeed in this program.
? It was Alberto who told the principal about the students prank. (Notice that the ?it was? brought special emphasis to ?Alberto,? an emphasis that is somewhat lost by this change.)
? A customer who is pleased is sure to return. A pleased customer is sure to return. (When we eliminate the ?To be? and the relative pronoun, we will also have to reposition the predicate adjective to a pre-noun position.)
An expletive construction, along with its attendant ?To be? verb, can often be eliminated to good effect. Simply omit the construction, find the real subject of the sentence, and allow it to do some real work with a real verb.
? There were some excellent results to this experiment in social work. (Change to . . . .) This experiment in social work resulted in . . . .
? There is one explanation for this story s ending in Faulkner s diary. (Change to . . . .) Faulkner s diary gives us one explanation for this story s ending.
On the other hand, expletive constructions do give us an interesting means of setting out or organizing the work of a subsequent paragraph:
? There were four underlying causes of World War I. First, . . . .
Fuzzy Verb Phrases with "Be"
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Verb phrases containing "be" verbs are often merely roundabout ways of saying something better said with a simple verb. Thus "be supportive of" for "support" is verbose.
The following circumlocutory uses of "be" verbs are common in stuffy writing. The simple verb (in parentheses) is usually better:
be abusive of (abuse) be applicable to (apply to) be benefited by (benefit from) be derived from (derive from) be desirous of (desire or want) be determinative of (determine) be in agreement (agree) be in attendance (attend) be indicative of (indicate) be in error (err)
be in existence (exist) be influential on (influence) be in possession of (possess) be in receipt of (have received) be in violation of (violate) be operative (operate) be productive of (produce) be promotive of (promote) be supportive of (support)
Many such wordy constructions are more naturally phrased in the present-tense singular: "is able to" ("can"), "is authorized to" ("may"), "is binding upon" ("binds"), "is empowered to" ("may"), "is unable to" ("cannot").
Stative and Dynamic Forms
Martha Kolln* suggests that we think of the difference between stative and dynamic in terms of ?willed? and ?nonwilled? qualities. Consider the difference between a so-called dynamic adjective (or subject complement) and a stative adjective (or subject complement): ?I am silly? OR ?I am being silly? versus ?I am tall.? I have chosen to be silly; I have no choice about being tall. Thus ?Tall? is said to be a stative (or an ?inert?) quality, and we cannot say ?I am being tall?; ?silly,? on the other
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hand, is dynamic so we can use progressive verb forms in conjunction with that quality.
Two plus two equals four. Equals is inert, stative, and cannot take the progressive; there is no choice, no volition in the matter. (We would not say, ?Two plus two is equaling four.?) In the same way, nouns and pronouns can be said to exhibit willed and unwilled characteristics. Thus, ?She is being a good worker? (because she chooses to be so), but we would say ?She is (not is being) an Olympic athlete? (because once she becomes an athlete she no longer ?wills it?). Singular Plural I am walking we are walking you are walking you are walking he/she/it is walking they are walking
Singular Plural I am sleeping we are sleeping you are sleeping you are sleeping he/she/it is sleeping they are sleeping
Singular Plural I am being we are being you are being you are being he/she/it is being they are being
-The summer is passing too quickly. -Raoul is acting like his father. -Some football players are not being good role models for youngsters. -Is he being good to you?
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Fifth Lecture
The Present Perfect Tense is formed with a present tense form of "to have" plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form). This tense indicates either that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the past or that the action extends to the present:
-I have walked two miles already [but I m still walking].
-I have run the Boston Marathon [but that was some time ago].
-The critics have praised the film Saving Private Ryan since it came out [and they continue to do so].
The choice between Present Perfect and Simple Past is often determined by the adverbial accompanying the verb. With adverbs referring to a period gone by, we would use the simple past:
-I studied all night/yesterday/on Wednesday.
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With adverbs beginning in the past and going up to present, we would use the present perfect:
-I have studied up to now/lately/already. Singular Plural I have walked we have walked you have walked you have walked he/she/it has walked they have walked
Singular Plural I have slept we have slept you have slept you have slept he/she/it has slept they have slept
Singular Plural I have been we have been you have been you have been he/she/it has been they have been
-For five generations, members of my family have been doctors. -Vaughan has batted clean-up since he came to the Redsox. -She has swum the English Channel every summer. -How long has it been since the last time we met?
The Present Perfect Progressive Tense indicates a continuous action that has been finished at some point in the past or that was initiated in the past and continues to happen. The action is usually of limited duration and has some current relevance: "She has been running and her heart is still beating fast." The present perfect progressive frequently is used to describe an event of the recent past; it is often accompanied by just in this usage: "It has just been raining."
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This tense is formed with the modal "HAVE" or "HAS" (for third-person singular subjects) plus "BEEN," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I have been working in the garden all morning. George has been painting that house for as long as I can remember."
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and not with stative verbs.
-Maria has been writing her dissertation for the last six years[, but she finished yesterday]. -The Redsox have been losing games since the All-Star break [and they continue to do so]. -Have we been telling the truth to consumers about tobacco? -Haven t we been lying to teenagers about smoking?
Sixth Lecture
The Past Tense indicates that an action is in the past relative to the speaker or writer.
-when the time period has finished: "We went to Chicago last Christmas."
-when the time period is definite: "We visited Mom last week."
-with for, when the action is finished: "I worked with the FBI for two months."
Regular verbs use the verb s base form (scream, work) plus the -ed ending (screamed, worked). Irregular verbs alter their form in some other way (slept, drank, drove).
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Singular Plural I walked we walked you walked you walked he/she/it walked they walked
Singular Plural I slept we slept you slept you slept he/she/it slept they slept
Singular Plural I was we were you were you were he/she/it was they were
-When I was a girl, I walked five miles to school every day. -Carmelita slept through the entire class. -We worked really hard to make this a success, but then Chuck ruined it with his carelessness. -Every time I finished a sandcastle, the waves came in and washed it away. -Tarzan dove into the swamp and swam toward the alligator.
The Past Progressive Tense indicates continuing action, something that was happening, going on, at some point in the past. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the past tense, plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):
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? I was riding my bike all day yesterday.
? Joel was being a terrible role model for his younger brother.
The past progressive indicates a limited duration of time and is thus a convenient way to indicate that something took place (in the simple past) while something else was happening:
? Carlos lost his watch while he was running.
The past progressive can express incomplete action.
? I was sleeping on the couch when Bertie smashed through the door.
(as opposed to the simple past, which suggests a completed action:
? I slept on the couch last night.
The past progressive is also used to poke fun at or criticize an action that is sporadic but habitual in nature:
? Tashonda was always handing in late papers.
? My father was always lecturing my brother.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and not with stative verbs. Singular Plural I was walking we were walking you were walking you were walking he/she/it was walking they were walking
Singular Plural I was sleeping we were sleeping
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you were sleeping you were sleeping he/she/it was sleeping they were sleeping
Singular Plural I was being we were being you were being you were being he/she/it was being they were being
-Dad was working in his garden all morning. -During the mid-50s, real estate speculators were buying all the swampland in Central Florida, and innocent people were investing all their money in bogus development projects. -Was he being good to you?
Seventh Lecture
The Past Perfect Tense indicates that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the past before something else happened. This tense is formed with the past tense form of "to have" (HAD) plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form):
-I had walked two miles by lunchtime.
-I had run three other marathons before entering the Boston Marathon.
Singular Plural
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I had walked we had walked you had walked you had walked he/she/it had walked they had walked
Singular Plural I had slept we had slept you had slept you had slept he/she/it had slept they had slept
Singular Plural I had been we had been you had been you had been he/she/it had been they had been
-Prior to the Revolutionary War, Washington had been a surveyor and land speculator. -Aunt Glad had invested heavily in the air-conditioning industry before the Great Crash of 1988. -She had swum the English Channel every summer until 1997. -How long had it been since you saw each other?
The Past Perfect Progressive Tense indicates a continuous action that was completed at some point in the past. This tense is formed with the modal "HAD" plus "BEEN," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I had been working in the garden all morning. George had been painting his house for weeks, but he finally gave up."
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and not with stative verbs.
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Singular Plural I had been walking we had been walking you had been walking you had been walking he/she/it had been walking they had been walking
Singular Plural I had been sleeping we had been sleeping you had been sleeping you had been sleeping he/she/it had been sleeping they had been sleeping
Singular Plural There is no past perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Had been being" is expressed simply as "had been": "We had been being successful before, but we somehow lost our knack.
-Hemingway had been losing his self-confidence for years before the publication of Old Man and the Sea. -Had they been cheating on the exams before the school put monitors in the classroom?
Eighth Lecture
The Future Tense indicates that an action is in the future relative to the speaker or writer. There are no inflected forms for the future in English (nothing like those -ed or -s endings in the other tenses). Instead, the future tense employs the helping verbs will or shall with the base form of the verb:
? She will leave soon.
? We shall overcome.
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The future is also formed with the use of a form of "go" plus the infinitive of the verb:
? He is going to faint.
English can even use the present to suggest the future tense:
? I am leaving later today."
Note that the auxiliary will can be combined with "be" and a progressive form of the main verb to create a sense of the future that does not harbor any hint of insistence (which is possible with the auxiliary alone). For instance, if stress is placed on the word will in "When will you arrive?", the sentence can sound impatient, insistent. In "When will you be arriving?" there is less of that emotional overtone.
The construction form of to be + infinitive is used to convey a sense of planning for the future, command, or contingency.
? There is to be an investigation into the mayor s business affairs.
? You are to be back on the base by midnight.
? If he is to pass this exam, he ll have to study harder.
To create a sense of imminent fulfillment, the word about can be combined with the infinitive.
? He is about to die.
Other adverbs can be used in similar constructions with various effects:
? He is liable to get in trouble.
? She is certain to do well in college.
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? Singular Plural I will walk we will walk you will walk you will walk he/she/it will walk they will walk
Singular Plural I will sleep we will sleep you will sleep you will sleep he/she/it will sleep they will sleep
Singular Plural I will be we will be you will be you will be he/she/it will be they will be
-We will be victorious! -We shall overcome. -We are going to win this race. -The bus arrives at three this afternoon. -The boss is announcing his retirement at today s meeting.
The Future Progressive Tense indicates continuing action, something that will be happening, going on, at some point in the future. This tense is formed with the modal "will" plus "be," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I will be running in next year s Boston Marathon. Our campaign plans suggest that the President will be winning the southern vote by November. "
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and not with stative verbs.
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Singular Plural I will be walking we will be walking you will be walking you will be walking he/she/it will be walking they will be walking
Singular Plural I will be sleeping we will be sleeping you will be sleeping you will be sleeping he/she/it will be sleeping they will be sleeping
Singular Plural There is no future progressive for the "to be" verb. "Will be being" is expressed simply as "will be": "We will be being happy."
-By this time tomorrow night, I will be sleeping in my own bed. -Next fall, we will be enjoying all the vegetables we planted last spring. -Will we be spending too much money if we buy that big-screen TV?
Ninth Lecture
The Future Perfect Tense indicates that an action will have been completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the future. This tense is formed with "will" plus "have" plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form): "I will have spent all my money by this time next year. I will have run successfully in three marathons if I can finish this one."
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Singular Plural I will have walked we will have walked you will have walked you will have walked he/she/it will have walked they will have walked
Singular Plural I will have slept we will have slept you will have slept you will have slept he/she/it will have slept they will have slept
Singular Plural I will have been we will have been you will have been you will have been he/she/it will have been they will have been
-By this time next week, I will have worked on this project for twenty days. -Before he sees his publisher, Charles will have finished four chapters in his new novel. -A Democratic president will have been in the White House for nearly half of the twentieth century. -How long will it have been since we were together?
The Future Perfect Progressive Tense indicates a continuous action that will be completed at some point in the future. This tense is formed with the modal "WILL" plus the modal "HAVE" plus "BEEN" plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "Next Thursday, I will have been working on this project for three years."
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and not with stative verbs.
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Singular Plural I will have been walking we will have been walking you will have been walking you will have been walking he/she/it will have been walking they will have been walking
Singular Plural I will have been sleeping we will have been sleeping you will have been sleeping you will have been sleeping he/she/it will have been sleeping they will have been sleeping
Singular Plural There is no future perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Will have been being" is expressed simply as "will have been": "By this time next year we will have been being on this committee for a decade."
-By the time he finishes this semester, Gesualdo will have been studying nothing but parasites for four years. -Will they have been testing these materials in the lab before we even get there?
Tenth Lecture
Sequence of Tenses
The tense of a verb in the subordinate clause changes in accordance with the tense of the verb in the main clause.
The basic rules are as follows:
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Rule 1
If the verb in the principal clause is in the present or the future tense, the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense, depending upon the sense to be expressed.
He says that he is fine. He says that he was fine. He says that he will be fine. He will say that he is fine. He will say that he was fine. He will say that he will be fine.
Rule 2
If the tense in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tense in the subordinate clause will be in the corresponding past tense.
He said that he would come. He told me that he had been ill. I knew that he would not pass. We noticed that the fan had stopped.
There are, nevertheless, a few exceptions to this rule.
A past tense in the main clause may be followed by a present tense in the subordinate clause when the subordinate clause expresses some universal truth.
Copernicus proved that the earth moves round the sun. The teacher told us that honesty is the best policy. He told me that the Hindus burn their dead.
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A subordinate clause expressing place, reason or comparison may be in any tense, according to the sense to be expressed.
He didn‘t get the job because his English isn‘t good. A fishing village once existed where now lies the city of Mumbai.
If the subordinate clause is an adjective clause, it may be in any tense as is required by the sense.
Yesterday I met a man who sells balloons. Yesterday I met a man who sold me a balloon.
Eleventh Lecture
Rule 3
Note that when the subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction of purpose that, the following rules are observed.
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We use may in the subordinate clause when the main clause is in the present tense. We use might in the subordinate clause when the main clause is in the past tense.
I study that I may pass. I will study that I may pass. I studied that I might pass. We eat that we may live. He ate that he might not die.
Rule 4
If the principal clause is in the future tense, we do not use future tense in subordinating clauses beginning with when, until, before, after etc.
I will call you when dinner is ready. (NOT I will call you when dinner will be ready.) I shall wait until you return. (NOT I shall wait until you will return.)
Twelfth Lecture
Rule 5
Expressions such as as if, if only, it is time and wish that are usually followed by past tenses.
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I wish I was a bit taller. It is time we started working. He talks as if he knew everything.
Using the correct sequence of tenses
Sometimes you combine parts of a sentence that are in different tenses - one part may be in the present tense and the other part may be in the future tense; for instance, like this one:
This sentence is fine - there‘s a logical progression of tenses. The first part says what I am doing right now, the next part tells what I will be doing in the future. But there are tenses that you can‘t combine. For instance:
I was running in the park, although it is snowing.
Whoa! Doesn‘t quite sound right when you read it aloud. This is because there‘s an error with the tenses - the main clause is in the past progressive tense - ?was running‘, but the dependent clause that comes after it is in the simple present tense - ?it is snowing‘.
Here are some tree diagrams that show you what tense combinations are acceptable. The tense on the left of the diagram is the tense of the main independent clause, and the tense options on the right are what you can use for the subordinate or dependent clauses in the sentence. An example sentence is given with each one.
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One of the tricky tense things I‘ve always had problems with is combining the simple past or progressive past with the present tense, like in this sentence.
You can do this when the present tense clause is saying something that is a general belief about something. Of course, you may disagree, but as long as it‘s something that could be a general belief, it‘s fine. Usually the ?something‘ that you‘re describing is from the first part of the sentence and hasn‘t changed significantly from the past until now. This sort of tense combination often comes up when you‘re writing historical essays, and you‘re talking about what the people of the time believed:
A few hundred years ago, people believed the world was flat, even though it is round.
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Thirteenth Lecture
We must keep in mind the sequence of tenses. This is a principle according to which, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause, follows the tense of the verb in the principal clause, as per the following rules
Rule no. 1:
A Past Tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause e.g.
There are however three exceptions to this rule:
Exception 1:
The principal clause in the past tense may be followed by a present tense in the subor-dinate clause when it expresses a habitual or universal fact.
Newton discovered that the force of gravity makes apples fall
He said honesty is always the best policy.
Exception 2:
When subordinate clause is followed by ?then‘. In this case even if the principal clause is in the past tense, it may be followed by any tense i.e. Present, Future or Past as required by the sense of the subordinate clause.
He liked you better than he likes me.
He valued his friendship more than he values mine.
Exception 3:
When the subordinate clause denotes place, reason or comparison, it may be in any tense, even if there is a past tense in the principal clause
He succeeded because he is hardworking.
Ram was smart but his brother is smarter.
Q1:Complete the following sentences using an appropriate form of the verb.
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1. Suddenly she gave a loud scream and ………………………… to the ground. (fell / had fallen / has fallen)
2. After questioning he …………………………… to go home. (allowed / was allowed / had allowed)
3. They would have won if they ……………………………. a bit harder. (played / had played / play)
4. She …………………….. to say that she disagreed. (heard / was heard / had heard)
5. Although they …………………………. defeated, they did not lose heart. (were / are / have been)
6. Our teacher taught us that virtue …………………………. its own reward. (is / are / will be)
7. The teacher asked the boys whether they …………………………. the problems. (had solved / have solved / will solve)
8. He declared that he would not believe it even if he ………………………… it with his own eyes. (see / saw / would see)
9. The room ………………………… but the police failed to find anything suspicious. (searched / was searched / had searched)
10. The government has announced that taxes …………………………….. (would be raised / will be raised / will raise)
Q2: Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. I knew that she Madrid before, so I asked her to recommend a good hotel.
has visited
has been visiting
visited
had visited
2. She promised to help me if I the answer myself.
haven t found
didn t find
won t find
wouldn t find
3. He said that they each other for many years.
know
have known
knew
had known
4. I saw that she to hold back her tears.
tries
is trying
has been trying
was trying
5. He knew that she as her eyes were red.
is crying
has been crying
was crying
had been crying
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6. I asked her whether she there with me, but she said no.
goes
is going
will go
would go
7. She said that the robber her when she was opening the door to her apartment.
attacked
has attacked
was attacking
had attacked
8. I wanted to see her but I didn t know if she in town.
is
was
were
had been
9. He told me that he would visit them when he from Spain.
has returned
returned
will return
would return
10. My younger daughter learned in class yesterday that the Earth around the Sun.
revolves
is revolving
revolved
was revolving
Q3:Complete the following sentences using appropriate verb forms.
1. You will find Coca-Cola wherever you …………………………….
a) Go b) Will go c) Would go
2. He would never do anything that ……………………….. against his conscience.
a) Goes b) Will go c) Went
3. I will lend it to you on condition that you ………………………… it back tomorrow.
a) Bring b) Will bring c) Would bring
4. I ……………………….. a good time whether I win or lose.
a) Will have b) Had c) Have
5. One day the government will ask people what they …………………………..
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a) Want b) Will want c) Wanted
6. I don‘t know where she ……………………………. tomorrow.
a) Will be b) Is c) Was
7. If I had lots of money, I would give some to anybody who ……………………….. for it.
a) Ask b) Asked c) Had asked
8. I have brought my tennis things, just in case we …………………………… time for a game tomorrow.
a) Have b) Will have c) Had
9. I will go where you ……………………………
a) Go b) Will go c) Would go
10. I will tell you when I ……………………………
a) Finished b) Have finished c) Will finish
Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. Who food in your family when your Mom is away?
cooks
is cooking
has been cooking
cooked
2. Where is John? – He his car in the garage.
repairs
is repairing
has repaired
repaired
3. I love this film. I it four or five times already.
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see
have seen
had seen
4. Have you visited any European countries? – Yes. I Spain and Italy two years ago.
visited
have visited
had visited
5. She the living room when she heard a strange noise in the kitchen.
has cleaned
has been cleaning
was cleaning
6. I envy you. At five tomorrow you some tan on the beach at the seaside.
will get
will be getting
will have gotten
will have been getting
7. You arrived two days ago. You are going to leave next Sunday. By the time you leave, you nine days here.
spend
have spent
are spending
will have spent
8. Where is he? I for him since three o clock!
am waiting
have been waiting
was waiting
had been waiting
9. I went to Belgium last month. I there before. It s a beautiful country.
have never been
had never been
never was
never been
10. He said that his mother would be very upset when she that he had lost his job.
learns
learned
had learned
would learn
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Fourteenth Lecture
Rule no. 2:
If principal clause is in Present or Future tense, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause can be Past, Present or Future depending on the sense conveyed.
She says that she went home.
She will say that her friends have deserted her.
There is however one exception.
When a subordinate clause expresses a purpose, condition or time, its verb is always in the present tense, even if the verb in principal clause is in present or future tense.
I shall nurse him so that he can live.
We shall leave when the meeting is over.
I eat that I can live.
Rule no. 3:
When the subordinate clause is introduced by a conjunction ?lest‘. It is always followed by ?should‘.
Ram studies lest he should fail.
Run fast lest you should miss the train.
Q1:Fill in the blanks using appropriate verb forms. Observe the rule of the sequence of tenses.
1. I found that my son …………………… awake.
2. The pickpocket confessed that he …………………………. (pick) my pocket.
3. He was so tired that he ……………………….. scarcely stand.
4. He said that I …………………………… a lazy good-for-nothing boy.
5. No one could explain how the prisoner ………………………….. (escape) from the prison.
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6. Euclid proved that the three angles of a triangle ………………………… equal to two right angles.
7. Italy went to war that she ……………………….. (extend) her empire.
8. The passage is so difficult that I ……………………… not comprehend it.
9. The boy was so indolent that he ……………………….. not pass.
10. In my perplexity I requested my guide to tell me what I ……………………….. to
Q2:Fill in the blanks with appropriate verb forms.
1. The teacher asked the boys if they ——————– the sums.
a) Solved b) Had solved c) Solve d) Have solved
2. Although they ———————, they did not lose heart.
a) Defeated b) Were defeated c) Had defeated d) Have defeated
3. Our teacher taught us that virtue ——————— its own reward.
a) Is b) Was c) Were d) Has
4. Our holy books tell us that man ——————- mortal.
a) Is b) Was c) Were d) Has
5. He spoke so fast that I ———————- understand anything.
a) Could b) Could not c) Cannot d) Had not
6. This is the house where John ———————-
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a) Lives b) Living c) Is lived d) Would lived
7. He kept quiet that he ——————— please me.
a) May b) Might c) Will d) Can
8. Just as I ——————– the room, the bell rang.
a) Entered b) Enter c) Will enter d) Would enter
9. Who told you that cows ——————- on grass?
a) Feed b) Was feeding c) Feeds d) Has fed
10. His health has improved since he ——————– from the hills.
a) Return b) Returned c) Would return d) Returning
11. He declared that he ———————- it even if he saw it with his own eyes.
a) Would not believe b) Believe c) Did not believe d) Had not believed
12. If that man smoked less he ——————— develop cancer.
a) Would not b) Had not c) Has not d) Will not
Q3: Insert the correct form of the verb in the following sentences.
1. Our Holy Books tell us that man ------------------ mortal.
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a) Is b) Was c) Will be
2. The teacher asked the boys whether they ------------------ the problems.
a) Solve b) Have solved c) Had solved
3. He spoke so fast that I ------------------- not follow him.
a) Can b) Could
4. His health has improved since he -------------------- from the hills.
a) Return b) Returned c) Would return
5. He kept quite that he --------------------- please me.
a) May b) Might c) Will
6. Who told you that goats ----------------- on grass?
a) Live b) Lived c) Had lived
7. He said that he -------------------- not believe it even if he saw it with his own eyes.
a) Will b) Would c) Might
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Fifteenth Lecture
Rule no. 4:
When the subordinate clause is introduced by ?as though‘ or ?as if. The present tense is generally used to indicate present time and the past perfect to denote past time; as
He pretends as if he were mad.
They laughed as though they were crazy.
Rule no. 5:
In conditional sentences the tense of the verb in the principal clause is future and the verb in the subordinate clause is present.
Unless Shyam apologizes, he will be punished.
Q1: Insert the correct tense of the verb (given in bracket) in the following blanks.
1. Let me see whoever he………….(may) be.
2. I am so tired that I …………..(can) not walk now.
3. He walked fast lest he………..(shall) miss the bus.
4. He ran away when he………….(see) me.
5. Strong though he is, he……… (be) not so bold.
6. It is now a week since the factory ……..(break) up.
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7. I shall leave the place only when you…….(come) back.
8. I never understood why he ………(behave) like this.
9. The stars will shine in the sky as long as the world ………(last).
10. He walked as if he …………….(be) lame.
Q2: Insert the correct tense of the verb (given in bracket) in the following blanks.
1. Poor though he is, he ………(be) not dishonest.
2. As far as I found out, his statement…….(be) not true.
3.We had hardly reached the office when the boss ……..(leave)for Delhi.
4. A man will reap as he ……..(sow).
5. Make haste lest you……..(shall)miss the chance.
6. Virtue ennobles but vice……….(degrade)
7. You must follow me whether you………(like) it or not.
8. His mother says that he……..(be) much better now.
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9. He ordered his secretary to note down what he……..(dictate).
10. He remained cheerful though he ……..(has) been ill for some days.